To say something meaningful regarding the shape and the size of the universe is only possible under the viewpoint of a geometry that considers very high velocities. This geometry is comprehensible as the synthesis of the special theory of relativity and Hubble’s principle of the expansion of the universe, in which both have suffered remaking by the addition of a corollary to each one of them. In order to keep symmetry, in the same degree as the object that recedes from the observer close to the speed of light, according to the contraction of FitzGerald, becomes shorter to him in their common axis, the object’s traverse plane to this axis must become reciprocally lengthened. The corollary to Hubble’s theory is that to the statement “the faster, the farther” it must be added “and the younger.” This geometry can thoroughly account for all the many questions and contradictions raised by recent observations of the background of the universe which have so much challenged our accepted knowledge and which have led to bizarre explanations, such as accelerating universe expansion, cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter.

Patricio Valdes-Marin

pvaldesmarin@hotmail.com

To understand the universe is not enough to know the basic discoveries made by modern cosmology. You also need some deal of imagination besides logical and abstract thinking about some non-traditional but highly pervading aspects of the universe. These insights and new interpretations of the facts are meant to open fresh paths to overcome the various contradictions, unreal explanations, and traps of current cosmology. The expected outcome is to allow all the pieces of this jigsaw puzzle to fit together in order to conform a coherent and consistent conception of the universe. The distance between imagination and reality can be as huge as pure fantasy, but it can be considerably shortened if we make the effort to select the right images and ideas to work with them. So even if you know a great deal of the available astronomical data, you will primarily need to make the mental effort to understand the reality of the universe by imagining what appears, by making thoughtful models and by purely synthesizing images into ideas and pushing these ideas further into more abstract ideas and concepts.

To prove these contentious statements, let’s start with the following image: you are comfortable sitting somewhere in space, such as a modern astronomical observatory on planet Earth, and looking at your distant environment through a very powerful telescope. Wherever you direct your telescope you will see stars and, further away, galaxies. As astronomers do, you can reasonably conclude from your observations that you are surrounded by stars and galaxies all over.

The Chaldeans imagined some millenniums ago that stars were placed in a celestial vault which would cover the known land as a lid. The vault as an image was replaced by an empty sphere as soon as someone would imagine the Earth to be a relatively small sphere located at the center of the universe. The image of this universe didn’t change much when Copernicus instead placed the Sun at the center of the universe. Today you know from modern astronomy that stars and also galaxies do not glitter from a vault or from the periphery of a sphere, but they are at different distances from you, and that these distances are son large that they are measured in “light years”. You also know that a light year is the distance that the light travels through space in one year and that the velocity of light is close to 300,000 kilometers per second.

To you as to any other observer, such as an ET existing in some distant galaxy, the universe would seemingly have the form of a sphere which contains countless stars and galaxies, each one of them may in turn be formed by millions stars. Wherever you direct your telescope above the terrestrial horizon in a clear night, you can actually see stars and more stars. And further away and by means of a very large telescope, you would be able to see hundreds of thousands galaxies distributed everywhere inside this gigantic volume. The nearest bodies would be next to you, while the farthest bodies would be next to the periphery in the universe’s confine.

Now try to imagine the universe as what is contained within a very, very huge sphere and you as the point which is the very center of this sphere. Since stars and galaxies are spread along the whole space that embraces the universe, you may imagine separations within this sphere. Imagine these separations to be internal and homocentric spheres with you at its center. Imagine then that the nearest sphere has a radius of one light year and contains all the celestial bodies that are at this distance from you or nearer. Next homocentric sphere has a radius of two light years and contains the celestial bodies between its own periphery and the periphery of the former sphere, and so forth until you would imagine that there are some fourteen or so billions homocentric spheres, each being separated from the preceding sphere by one light year. The Milky Way would occupy a great part of the first hundred thousand spheres. Andromeda would occupy a little zone in a group of tens of thousands spheres next to the sphere numbering two millions three hundred thousand, and so forth for the more distant galaxies. Also imagine that every year a new homocentric sphere is added, meaning that the universe expands at the velocity of light.

1. Matter and energy; time and space; cause and effect.

Imagination in itself does not account for all our human possibilities of thought, since we can elaborate images into ideas and we can order the ideas into statements from which we can derive valid conclusions if these statements are ordered in a logical manner. These conclusions will be true if the statements are firstly true. Further, we can relate the causal relationships that we observe and experiment and obtain universal laws since the universe behaves in very distinct manners. Finally, we can synthesize ideas into more abstract ideas or concepts. The ideas of matter and energy are very abstract, as well as the ideas of time and space.

Philosophizing about these abstract concepts, you can state that energy doesn’t exist by itself since no such thing has been ever observed. Energy needs to be contained, and in the universe energy is contained in matter. More precisely, you can state that matter is the specification of energy and that matter relates to matter by means of energy. Matter is energy’s concretion to be fully functional either as a cause and/or an effect. Bodies are concentrations of matter because of the fundamental forces. Their matter manifests itself as causes and effects because bodies made of matter affect other bodies when they transmit them energy.

Next you can observe the gears of a clock and conclude that through movement time is related to space. You can think that time and space not only measure as well as they are measurable by the movement of an object in relationship to another, but their existence has to deal with change. Time and space are the measurements of reciprocally the duration and the extension of a process. They come to be when a cause relates to its effect.

It is impossible that you might think that time or space pre-exist to things. If you affirm that matter and energy are identified with all things in the universe, then time and space cannot exist independently, but rather their existences depend on the existence of matter and energy. You can imagine that space is not a void, but it is the means for passing energy over from a cause to its effect, and time is the rate at which energy is passed over. The big bang theory teaches that in its primeval origin an infinite energy was contained in a no-space; you can derive the theory that its evolution in the course of time has followed the course of a continuous and each more complex structuring that has gone on developing space ever since.

The magnitude of the maximum possible movement in the universe has an absolute limit, which is the velocity of the photon. Einstein rightly concluded that time and space are relative, that is to say, both parameters are correlative in respect to this movement with absolute value. He introduced the concept “space-time” as two relative parameters that are related to each other, having the speed of light as their absolute reference.

The speed of light imposes a limit to the propagation of causal relationship, where the same effects cannot be observed simultaneously by two different observers. Cosmology must refer to “the observer” as one of the infinite possible points of view. Again, the concept “the observer” is crucial in understanding the universe and its properties, such as space-time, present time, and cause-effect relationship.

At the other end of the scale, the minimum possible distance between the smallest existing two bodies is the number of Planck, which refers to the minimum packet of energy, named quantum. You can conclude that time and space are not infinitely small. They begin to exist starting from this number. In the universe an inferior limit and a superior limit exist for the action of causation. The inferior limit is the dimension of the energy quantum, given by Planck’s constant, which determines the smallest scale for the existence of a causal relationship. The superior limit for a causal relationship refers to the maximum speed that movement can attain, which is the speed of light.

2. Present time.

Starting from the idea of the mutual correlation of time and space, and that the maximum speed of the propagation of the cause is that of the speed of light, you can be able to deduce that the only limit of the universe is not a spatial dimension, but rather it is the present time. To reach at this conclusion you can imagine yourself, in your performance of being the center of the universe, to be at the present time. You can easily reckon that this reality is also true to any other observer in the whole universe. Since the present time belongs exclusively to each observer in particular, everybody else exists for himself in his past. To you, as an observer, everything in the universe exists in your own past.

As an observer, you exist in your own present. The present time is the actualization of the causal relationship. In your own present every effect that has had a space-time to arrive into your own existence from its original cause in a past is actualized. In your own present you just perceive the causes coming from your past. You can appreciate that from the present every cause that will have an effect in a future and that will be past for you originates. Existence belongs exclusively to your present time, which is the moment of time when you are subject of causes and object to effects. The causal relationship links the moments of time into your own present.

Absolutely all that you as an observer observes would necessarily be for you in the past. The farther the object is away from you, the farther it will exist in your past. And what is valid for you, as an observer, is valid for any other observer –or thing– in the universe in his own perspective. What you observe in your existential present are the effects of events that happened sometime in your near past up to in your remote past.

To Hubble’s principle: “the farther the object is away from the observer, the faster it will be receding away from him”, you will be able to add a corollary. Said corollary is simpler and probably wide known, though not as well understood. To the statement “the faster, the farther”, you can add “and the younger.” Farther away objects are in your distant past and conversely closer to the big bang. The concept big bang will become more real as your imagery and thought become more elaborated.

If you follow the principle of Hubble, the absolute limit of the receding speed is that of light. The periphery of the sphere in which you exist at its very center recedes away from you at the speed of light. From your own perspective the distance between the periphery of the universe and your own position in the universe places you at the maximum possible distance from the former, given that you are the only being existing at the present time –your own present time– and the oldest possible being at all, while everybody else is in your past, being younger than yourself.

If the absolute parameter of the universe is the speed of light, the space that mediates between the big bang and your here and now is the result of multiplying this speed by the time which light has been traveling from the big bang. This space doesn’t have a permanent existence, because it cannot be traveled over again by a light ray that went back to the big bang. Time would be lacking. This space existed and was real only while a cause in the form of a distinct energy traveled through it. In other words, this space was construed by this energy to link two bodies of matter, the cause and its effect. Our daily experience makes us conceive space as something given, previous to the existence of matter and energy. Daily we travel the same space to go from home to work and vice versa. But in the cosmic scale the trip between two galaxies follows a path that is good just for such occasion.

The entire space-time in the universe happens between two poles: the big bang, as the origin of the sole universe and as its absolute past, and each observer at his own present time, as the effects of causes that are necessarily located in this past. The universe has two absolute points of reference: the big bang as the absolute reference for everybody in the universe, and you, the observer, as the absolute reference to yourself.

3. Light speed expansion.

A sphere is a geometric body that possesses a volume amid space, but the universe cannot exist with an external space outside itself. Most cosmologists agree that time and space developed with the expansion of the universe. You, as an observer existing in the universe, cannot observe the universe from its own “outside”. As you may deduce, any observer is necessarily part of the universe. If the periphery of the sphere in which you are at its very center recedes away from you at the speed of light, then the expanding rate of the universe has such velocity. You may reason that it must be constant, since this speed is absolute.

By no means you can think that the speed of a body that would move away from the big bang have a higher speed than that of the universe expansion, which is that of the speed of light. If you were at a longer distance from the big bang than the permitted by your traveling at the speed of light away from the big bang, it would mean that you would be traveling at a higher speed than light, and the effects of the big bang would not have been able to reach you, or that you would still be future.

On the other hand, you cannot affirm that the bodies can move away from the big bang at a smaller rate than that of the speed of light. If you or any other part of the universe were traveling at a slower speed, you would not have suffered any effect at all from the big bang, since its action, which travels at the speed of light, would have taken the lead, creating a different universe. If the universe were expanding at a smaller rate than that of the speed of light, you would not be able to explain, for example, the enormous velocity of recession of observed distant quasars. Again, if it were possible for you to observe the very beginning of the universe, the energy coming from there would still be affecting you anew or continuously.

Furthermore, as any other observer in the universe, you cannot ever witness the big bang, since this primeval explosion is at light speed distance from you. Neither would it be possible for you to observe the beginning of the universe if you just focus your potent telescope toward the supposed original point. And if it were possible for you to observe the very beginning of the universe, the energy coming from there would still be affecting you, as well as the rest of the universe, in a permanent act of creation that would have no end.

You can deduce that further away, at a distance of about fourteen billion light years, which would be the frontier of the universe from your own point of view as observer, any object there would be receding away from you at the speed of light. The conclusion that the universe expands at the constant speed of light should end the cosmological discussion whether this expansion is accelerating or de-accelerating. Moreover, a continuum, pre-existent, permanent space-time which is curved due to the presence of mass doesn’t make any sense in a universe that expands at the speed of light. Basically, you would say that inertia and gravity are two distinct functions of mass which cannot be identified between themselves, since both functions, although they have the same effects under some circumstances, are originated by different sources of energy.

If you and another body in the apparent sphere of the universe with the big bang as its center would occupy the extremes in one of its diameters, for you the other body could not be moving away from you at twice the speed of light. Not only you would not be able to see the other body, but the masses of you and the other body, related to each other, would have a double infinite energy, something which is impossible.

This contradiction can be explained by our corollary to Hubble’s principle. As sure as “the more distant, the quicker” it is the principle “the further away, the younger.” This diametrically opposed body in space is perceptible to you just because for you it is almost as young as the big bang itself. Space-time prefers to alter the relationship between them, lengthening space and diminishing time, if light speed’s absolute value is to be kept. Consequently, there are two conclusions that you can derive from this: first, you can theoretically be observer of the whole universe at any time, and second, what you can observe at any time is an instantaneous picture of the universe, but where the age of each body depends on its distance related to you.

The closer to the big bang –as being seen by you as a particular observer– the younger is the body. The limit is the big bang itself, having no age at all, if it were possible for you to have a look at it. You know, however, that such quest is impossible. Not only high radiation wholly obscures the primeval universe where the big bang is hidden at its center and covering from our eyes more than half the universe, what is equally important is that the light wave frequency of the big bang would be equal to zero and its wave length would be equal to the universe’s radius.

If Copernicus displaced the Earth as the center of the universe, this theory places each one of us in its very center again, being the other center the big bang itself. The entire space-time in the universe happens between two poles: the big bang, as the sole origin of the universe and as its absolute past, and each observer at his own present time, as the effects of causes that are necessarily located in this past.

Space is a composite of three dimensions. The local Newtonian space with three dimensions is framed by the local thing in the center of an apparent sphere which is encompassed by the big bang. The statement that you can conclude is that the last or external sphere –the periphery of the sphere whose center is occupied by you– would be the big bang.

4. The main paradox of cosmology.

You have arrived at the main paradox of cosmology: since the universe had its origin in the big bang, which was a single timeless and space-less point but with infinite energy, how is it possible that this peculiar point, this ‘singularity’ as some cosmologists call it, did spread throughout the whole apparent periphery of the celestial sphere in whose center you sits down looking through a telescope? In other words, if the big bang started from a single space-less-timeless point, how is it that from your own point of view the original point of the universe can be identified with the periphery of a sphere which encompasses the whole universe? That is to say, the paradox is that the periphery of the most gigantic sphere possible has to be identified with the singularity when and where the universe originated, having to accept that the tiny point of the big bang wraps up the whole periphery of the observer’s universe.

Geometry is the appropriate science to visualize and measure the shape of anything, because its object of study is extension. But in the case of the universe, the known geometry is not enough, since time should also be considered. That is why cosmology is so complex and the universe is so difficult to grasp. Euclidean geometry can work quite well for the observer’s nearest spheres. But this geometry is a measure of space, not of time. When the speed of light is brought in, no known geometry can describe reality.

When the speed of light is accounted for as an absolute parameter of reality, a space-time symmetry appears by which both parameters become inversely proportional, altering all known geometry. Hubble would say that the further the spheres are away from you, the observer, the faster they travel away. According to this new geometry, the sphere numbering 12.12 billions would be moving away from you at 259,800 kilometers per second. But in accordance to the equation for the contraction of FitzGerald, from your perspective the distance between this sphere and the next one would not be 9.46 trillion kilometers –the distance traveled by a photon in one year–, but rather it would have decreased to just half that distance. In the same way, on account of Einstein’s theory of special relativity, the duration of the year would have increased twice, from our own point of view as observers.

The sphere numbering 370,000, counting back from the last sphere, which is the sphere for the big bang, is the limit of our observable universe. Behind it remains more than half of the universe, compressed in its earliest stages. We will never know how it has evolved in the fourteen billion years since then. The only thing we can say is that its evolution has followed the same laws that govern our observable universe. 

Being this idea the explanation of the main paradox of cosmology, it is necessary to change the conclusion of the contraction of FitzGerald that “at the speed of light space shortens to zero” to the following idea: "from the point of view of you, the observer, close to the speed of light it is not the extension as a whole of an object that travels away from the observer at such speed which shortens, but it is just one of its three dimensions, the specific object’s dimension which belongs to the axis drawn up between the observer and the object itself." In order to keep symmetry, in the same degree that the object that recedes at high speed from the observer becomes shorter to him in their common axis, the object’s traverse plane to this axis becomes reciprocally lengthened. If one of the object’s dimensions appears shorter to the observer, the remaining two dimensions should appear longer to him, making the object look bigger in these other dimensions than what it is really. 

The equation for the contraction of FitzGerald is = L 'L (1-v ² / c ²) ^ (1/2), where L is the length of the body moving away, v is the withdrawal speed, c is the speed of light. The corollary of this mathematical expression refers to the fact that this equation is one of the three dimensions of an area or volume, that is V = LHW, and where V is volume, H is height, and W is the width. Let’s see the case of the volume of the sphere, say, 13,000 compared to the volume of the sphere that precedes it, that would be number 12,999. That is, the distance from the observer to its periphery would be 13,000 million light years. Applying FitzGerald contraction, the periphery of this area would be receding at 284 672 km / s and the distance between the periphery of this sphere and the sphere number 13001 would have an apparent contraction of 0.3156 of 1 light year. However, applying our corollary to this contraction, the apparent area of ​​its periphery would be 3.1690 times the periphery of a sphere that would be at 13,000 million light years away. The reason is that although the distances are distorted for the existing observer at the center of the concentric spheres, the volume (in this case, that which would exist between the periphery of sphere number 13,000 and periphery of the sphere number 12,999) would not suffer distortion, according to the observer, and its increase would depend on universe's expansion, constituting a cosmological principle that could be expressed as follow: for an observer distances and lengths are due to the contraction of Fitzgerald and the special theory of Einstein, but the volume is maintained.

When the contraction becomes zero because the receding velocity of the object is that of the speed of light, then the product of the other two dimensions –height and width– becomes infinite.Your daily experience certainly teaches you that the further away an object is located, the smaller it appears to you. But this conclusion is erroneous when this object moves away from you, as an observer, at velocities near the speed of light. A very important effect for astronomic observations is that the far distant objects appear to you with more amplified dimensions, in relative terms, as if distance were a gigantic lens whose magnifying property increases exponentially. The absolute limit related to image increase would be the big bang itself. Being in fact just a point without any magnitude at all, for you however its image would on the contrary appear, if you could observe it at all, equal to the area of the last sphere of the universe.

The geometry of very high speeds makes very distant objects appear to you bigger than what they really are. This phenomenon is due to the fact that these objects belong to an area which is near the zero of the big bang but which at the same time needs to cover the periphery of the apparent sphere that wraps up the whole universe. So for you or anyone else there is no need to have recourse to some gravitation forces caused by some massive objects that would distort and amplify the image of far distant objects while the light they emit travels into your own eyes.

5. Explanations to recent discoveries in astronomy.

In these recent years new discoveries have been made while searching deeply into the cosmos with very advanced instruments and everybody has been surprised at them. However the geometry of very high speeds offers explanations to these discoveries without contradicting well supported physical theories. Consequently, these phenomena don’t need to be explained by odd theories such as “repellent gravity” caused by such entity as “dark energy”.

The geometry of very high velocities is enough to explain these phenomena, such as the highly polarized light images of CMBR (cosmic microwave background radiation), which showed very fine details, such as ripples. The CMBR was first detected in 1964 by Arno Penzias y Robert Wilson and was measured by the famous COBE satellite. It was recently measured by the CBI, and later on by the WMAP, a NASA satellite. This geometry can explain why the CMBR comes from everywhere in space. This radiation is not an echo that keeps on bouncing back and forth, as it is supposed, but it comes from the universe shortly after the big bang. The CMBR’s anisotropy can be explained by the fact that the universe then, at an age of 370,000 years, doesn’t completely wrap up our actual universe, as the big bang does. The reason for such difference is that the radius of the CMBR sphere is 370,000 light years shorter than the radius of the big bang sphere.

And the reason why the CMBR wavelength has been stretched into the microwave region is explained by special relativity. Due to receding velocities close to the speed of light, time delays, lengthening light waves. The average CMBR, which is similar to the radiation of a blackbody at 2.735 K, doesn’t mean that it has cooled down due to universe’s expansion, since radiation doesn’t just cool down and the matter in space doesn’t function as a sort of gas. Big bang should broadcast radiation equivalent to a blackbody at 0 K. The CMBR will accompany the universe forever, each time getting colder in its endless destiny to reach the asynthotic limit of 0 K.

Among recent discoveries, in 1998, measuring the light intensity of supernovae, researchers of the Supernovae Cosmology Project found that very distant supernovae appeared 25 percent dimmer than what they were supposed to be. The explanation to the fact discovered by these researchers that the light of farther away supernovae is dimmer than closer supernovae is rather simple and has nothing to do with the explanation they gave based on a supposed accelerating universe expansion. Rather, it has to do with time. According to Hubble’s principle, farther away supernovae recede at much higher speeds than closer supernovae. According to Einstein’s theory of special relativity, the developing explosion of farther away supernovae appears to the observer to be much slower than it really is, since their receding speeds are nearer the speed of light than closer supernovae. At big bang distance, time simply detains. The flow of photons coming from these more distant supernovae becomes sparser, so that their luminosity appears fainter to the observer. This effect gave these researchers the impression that the expansion of the universe is actually accelerating. But it can be suggested to them that explosion duration, besides its intensity in luminosity, should become of significance to them. Also, the cosmic inflation theory, related to a supposedly extremely rapid exponential of the early universe, can be perfectly explained by the modified contraction of FitzGerald.

And last but not least, dark matter is a theoretical component that has been postulated to add mass to the mass calculated according to the brightness of galaxies. In the first place, astronomers have evaluated the mass of clusters of several thousands galaxies adding the estimated mass according to the brightness of their individual galaxies. Then they have calculated the escape speed which allows that some galaxy might leave the gravity field of the cluster, disappearing from the intergalactic space. At the same time they have measured the speed of the galaxies in this cluster. But what they have really found is that the measured speeds are very superior to the calculated escape speeds. The conclusion they have arrived is that the cluster should disperse in a relatively short time.

Their solution postulates a strange mass which these astronomers have named ‘dark matter,’ since it can’t be seen, and which the cluster should contain to increase its mass in relation to the observed mass. Only a greater mass could theoretically retain all galaxies within the cluster itself. Just this dark component, ten or twenty times more massive than the luminous component, is been seen enough to re-establish the situation. The new escape speeds, calculated considering this theoretical component, would now be superior to the measured speeds. Therefore, the cluster would no longer risk dispersing throughout space.

Again the geometry of very high velocities can explain the enormous speeds of the galaxies in relation to its observable mass. In the first place, their apparent brightness turns out to be smaller than it really is because of the effect explained above in relation to supernovae. In second place, the apparent size increase of distant galaxies in relation to their real size is explained by the “lensing” effect of said geometry, which also distorts their real speeds within their cluster. And thirdly, the origin of gravity is distinctly different to the origin of light. These three effects are enough to explain the phenomena observed without necessity of appealing to such odd entity as dark matter.

These are the consequences of the theory of special relativity, Hubble’s principle, and their corollaries. To an observer, at speeds close to light, mass tends to increase to infinite, time tends to detain, and space tends to shorten to zero and to lengthen to encompass the whole universe. In fact, these phenomena would be exponentially accentuated for the observer’s farthest spheres, and they would be fully verified for the last sphere, which belongs to the big bang. Consequently, the dimension of this last sphere would be a space-less point. Also its mass would be infinite, and time would have stopped, becoming an eternity.

6. The big bang as the center of the universe.

One of the just two valid and complementary points of view which the universe can be envisioned is that of an apparent sphere whose center is the big bang itself and whose periphery, created by the expanding matter, is what every bit of this matter occupies at every bit’s present, pointing at the big bang as its ultimate cause for its existence. The notion ‘big bang’ means that the universe had an origin in an infinitely small point filled up with infinite energy. Then neither time nor space existed, since energy then had not yet been condensed into matter. If the universe expands at the speed of light, for each second that elapses the universe radius expands another three hundred thousands kilometers. Thence the dimension of the radius of the universe is equal to the speed of light multiplied by the time it has elapsed between the big bang and the present time.

No one can suppose that the universe, conceived as a sphere whose center is the big bang, would have the same appearance as the universe you or anyone else observes. You can imagine its geometry as a metaphor, because it is impossible to imagine it, lest to picture it, since this apparent sphere does not have a spatial limit, but a temporal one. This image would be that of a sphere whose periphery is the only place where matter is spread. It would resemble an inflated balloon whose radius expands at the speed of light. In this image all the matter of the universe is located and is at a contemporaneously present time –from the point of view of the big bang– would be the curved plane of the balloon’s periphery. This periphery would comprise two of the space dimensions. It would be like the balloon’s latex membrane, except that it could not have any thickness at all, since all its points would be at the same and exact distance from their common center in the big bang. It could not account for bodies orbiting each other, as we observe them, since it could not contain the three spatial dimensions together. The other space dimension would be the balloon’s radius which grows at the speed of light.

The special theory would say that to an observer located right in the big bang time would have become so much larger that not an infinitesimal fraction of a second would have elapsed. Again, for this observer distance would have decreased to zero, as if the big bang were the base of a trunk that sustains the immensity of the universe, giving unity to it through an immense cause-effect relationship. Since the whole universe had a single and common origin, then the same natural laws govern all the cause-effect relationship among its things. To the cause of the universe lodged in the big bang, in spite of being about fourteen billions years away in the past, the whole universe would be in its own present time, while the causal manifestation would be reciprocally present in the whole universe.

7. Gravity.

It can be stated that the big bang shot radial away matter and energy in all directions at the constant rate of the speed of light, expanding forever and forcing the generation of a three-dimensional space as a means for the interacting of its parts. In this view, none of matter’s parts can seemingly move away from their common original center in the big bang at a higher velocity than that of light, which is the maximum possible speed.

At the instant of the birth of the universe the energy contained in the big bang was given over to every minute bit of mass which burst away at the speed of light. Consequently, every minute piece of mass, according to the special theory of relativity, contained infinite energy relative to the big bang. On the other hand, the mass at the periphery looses density as the universe expands and as the periphery grows. These two ideas are especially relevant to the explanation of the force of gravitation. Gravity exists at the expense of the density of this matter with infinite energy. Gravity and the electromagnetic forces are that which causally relates everything to all things.

Gravity is the force that makes bodies attract each other, keeping them together so that they will not spread away through space and maintaining their orbits around other bodies. Gravity is not the distortion of space-time due to the presence of mass, as general relativity proposes. The inexhaustible and constant energy that maintains the force of universal gravitation can come only from the energy which arises from the expansion of the universe at the speed of light. The universal expansion of space-time, which is generated by the mass while it is impelled at light speed from the big bang, produces reciprocally an implosion of the massive bodies. According to Lorentz’s equation, every bit of mass contains infinite kinetic energy in relation to the big bang, because it moves from this original and common center at the speed of light. This energy is transformed into force of gravitation in a space that this mass goes on generating to the third power. A big crunch would then be impossible, because the force of gravitation, which should be the cause in the contraction of the universe, is precisely the effect of its expansion.

The expansion of the universe forces the massive bodies to separate each other by angular effects, originating a reciprocal force of gravitation. In his general theory of relativity Einstein identified inertial force with gravitational force. In the present theory, expanding inertial force produces gravitational force. Gravity exerts its force at the expense of mass density. The first principle of thermodynamic is kept through the symmetry between gravity and mass density, not needing any type of exogenous energy.

Since the universe expands radial away from the big bang at the same rate, its parts form angles between themselves which are kept fixed through time, and the same force of gravitation governs the whole universe as a constant. All the massive units move radial away from the big bang toward every direction. Therefore, two distinct massive units, being both vectors with a determined and constant angle between themselves, having a common center in the big bang and both infinite energy regarding their origin, generate the mutual attraction when they are in fact forced to depart between themselves. Newton did already describe the value for this mutual attraction. It is a function of mass and distance.

Just as electric load transforms energy into electromagnetic force, mass has the capacity to transform the energy from the expanding universe into force of gravitation. The energy derived from the loss of density becomes force of gravitation being mediated by mass. From the space-time perspective, the implosion of gravity happens in a space that is continually taken to the present time, which is when the cause-effect relationship is actualized. Time and space are functions of the activity of mass and electric load, which develop a space-time environment to be able to interact and to be functional, either as a cause or as an effect. The whole of these space-times is the space-time that we observe and experiment as a whole, since everything is related to the same origin in the big bang.

Thus the universe comes to be like an immense motor, the size of the universe itself. Its primeval energy produced mass, electric load, and infinite inertia. Its inertial force continues to become a gravitational force through the kinetic energy of the mass that moves radial away from the big bang at the speed of light. The universe keeps evolving and structuring itself while it keeps expanding and gradually using up the energy given by the big bang to structure matter at the expense of density.

If density diminishes while generating gravity as the universe keeps on expanding forever, from the point of view of you or any other observer this density decreasing is not directly apparent. What you or any other observer observes instead is the ever increasing receding speed of ever further away bodies, as Hubble pointed out.

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